Hellenistic 希腊文化的

Byzantine Empire 拜占庭帝国

Milanese 米兰人

Venetian 威尼斯人

Be conducive to 对……有益

Plague 黑死病

Speculate 思索，推测

Bishop of Rome 罗马大主教

ecclesiastical 教会的，神职的

accusations of corruption 贪污腐败的指控

simony, nepotism 买卖圣职，偏袒亲戚

the New Testament  新约

which hunt 政治迫害

malady 疾病

A brief introduction of Renaissance

We often use the word Renaissance to denote the whole transition from the Middle Age to the Modern world, which spanned roughly the 14^th to the 17^th century, beginning in Italy in the late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a revival of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths（博学者） as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term “Renaissance man”.

While an agreement has been reached that the Renaissance began in late 13^th century Florence, but it remains unsure why the Renaissance began there. Several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. One of them is the assimilation of Greek and Arabic knowledge. By rediscovery and study of ancient texts written in Latin or ancient Greek which had long been forgotten in Western Europe, the scholars found a desire to improve and perfect their worldly knowledge; an entirely different sentiment to the transcendental spirituality stressed by medieval Christianity. A lot of those works was preserved in Europe’s monastic libraries. The contemporary social and political structures in Italy also contributed to the movement. Instead of a political entity, the nation was divided into smaller city states and territories（领土、版图）,including the Kingdom of Naples, Republic of Florence, and the Papal States etc. The relative political freedom was conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centers made them intellectual crossroads. Here is another theory asserting that it is the devastation caused by the Black Death in Florence that resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14^th-century Italy. It has been speculated that the familiarity with death brought thinkers to dwell on more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife. Yet the explanation is not sufficient enough. What’s more, It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Some historians postulated （假定）that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck because “Great Men” such as Da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, others have contended （主张）that the “Great Men” were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions in Florence.

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual enquiry. It is the history of the attainment of self-conscious freedom by the human spirit. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.

One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. （高度现实的线性透视）The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. Painter also developed other techniques, studying light, shadow and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci. Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature, and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael. Concurrently, in the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed, both technically with the introduction of oil paint and canvas in Italy, and stylistically（在文体上）in terms of naturalism in representation, which inspired artists to depict themes of everyday life.

In architecture, architects studies the remains of ancient Classical buildings and formulated the Renaissance style which emulated and improved on classical forms. The first building to demonstrate this is claimed to be the church of St.Andrew built by Alberti in Mantua（曼图拉）. The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding of St.Peter’s Basilica. During that time, architects aimed to use columns（圆柱）, pilasters（壁柱）, and entablatures（柱上楣构，支柱 ）as an integrated system.

The philosophical conception- -humanism was introduced during that time. Humanitsts studied ancient texts and appraised them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence. They praised the genius of man and the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind. The idea of humanism penetrated in every great change of intelligence during the Renaissance.

The new idea of humanism developed against an unquestioned Christian backdrop.（背景）Although much of the new art was commissioned by the Church, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God. The Renaissance began in the times of religious turmoil, a period of political intrigue surrounding the Papacy, which dominated the ecclesiastical matters but dogged by continued accusations of corruption. Finally, the 95 Theses, which is published by Martin Luther in October 1517,challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption,  led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previous claimed hegemony in Western Europe.

The upheavals occurring in the arts and humanities were mirrored by a dynamic period of change in sciences. The most significant change is to be the introduction of a truly scientific method. Science and art were very much intermingled in the early Renaissance, with the artist such as Da Vinci making observational drawing of anatomy and nature. Yet scientific method introduced a revolutionary way of leaning about the world, focusing on empirical evidence, and the importance of mathematics. It led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy.

By the 15^th century, writers, artists and architects in Italy were well aware of the transformations that were taking place. However, It was not until the nineteenth century that the French word Renaissance achieved popularity in describing the cultural movement. Many scholars viewed the Renaissance as the milestone of the emergence of the modern spirit of individuality. More recently, historians have been preferred to define the Renaissance as a movement of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in different times and places, rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings.