1.地址学

geography      地理

geographer     地理学家

hemisphere     半球

meridian        子午线

parallel         平行圈

latitude          纬线

longitude         经度

elevation       海拔

altitude       高度

temperate latitudes 温带地区

horizon             地平线

equator             赤道

tropics             热带地区

Arctic/the north pole 北极

Antarctic                南极

aurora            极光

tropics of cancer 北回归线

tropics of capricorn 南回归线

international date line 国际日期变更线

time difference 时差

expedition 探险

time zone  时区

topography 地形学

plain 平原

plateau 高地

lowland 低地

basin 盆地

oasis 绿洲

peak 山峰

cavern 洞穴

terrain 地域

subterranean 地底下

coastland 沿海地区

coastline 海岸线

watershed 分水岭

upper reaches 上游

lower reaches 下游

tributary 支流

deposit 沉积

 

雅思考官最为痛斥的"四宗罪"

资深雅思口语考官系列文章（一）

 

Grammar Mistakes

"四宗罪"之一：语法错漏百出

 

The number of grammar mistakes a candidate makes must be kept to a minimum. Many students have problems with tense (either present, past or future). These are fundamental errors and need to be kept to a bare minimum.

 

Many mistakes will result in the grammar score being penalised. For example, candidates who make many errors during the course of the answers will probably get a 5 for grammar.

 

Candidates need to be aware that grammar also means that spoken sentences should be of a variety. That is, use simple, compound and complex sentences. An example of a useful complex sentence is: "I need to learn English, which is very useful, because it can help me get a rewarding job".

 

In addition, many students do not shift from the active to the passive. Shifting from one to another demonstrates that the candidate has a variety of grammatical structures available to them.

 

Furthermore, candidates do not use enough conditional sentences, modals and comparative structures. It is always important to compare things to other things so that examiners can understand exactly what you are trying to communicate.

 

For example, a Chinese person's idea of tasty is different to a westerner's idea of tasty. So, to enable the examiner to understand your idea of tasty, compare it to something. Say something such as, "Food cooked in hotpots is tastier than food cooked on a barbecue".

 

In the same way, a candidate ought to say (about home-cooked food), "My mother's cooking is better than any restaurant I have ever been to". In this way, the candidate is comparing their mother's cooking with the food from a restaurant.

Inadequate/Inappropriate Vocabulary

"四宗罪"之二：词汇匮乏不当

 

Some candidates believe that they should use very academic words in the speaking test. This is very wrong. To begin with, candidates need to ensure they communicate their response to the examiner rather than relying on fancy adjectives.

 

If a candidate uses impressive vocabulary to talk about fruit and vegetables, then they are very wrong because that type of language is inappropriate. That is, the examiner might have no real idea of your meaning. On the other hand, you will get points if you use "impressive" vocabulary appropriately and show that you know the exact meaning of these words.

 

Candidates often forget to use a variety of words from the basic, everyday language to a more sophisticated level - as long as the sophisticated language is appropriate. That is, you are discussing the importance of money or the environment. Then the examiner might expect to hear, "The current financial crisis has caused a significant amount of turbulence in the financial sector". Similarly, something such as, "Environmental issues continue to hassle governments around the globe nowadays".

 

Moreover, candidates infrequently use phrasal verbs, which are a very common part of spoken English. Phrasal verbs are excellent examples of idiomatic language styles. Examples such as: ‘look after' (somebody); ‘come up against' (difficulties); ‘look forward to' (something in the future) are very good resources for candidates.

 

Candidates also forget to use adjectives to describe feelings and emotions. This means the examiner is unclear about what you think and feel about what you are talking about. Some worthy examples of useful adjectives include: disappointed, embarrassed, fascinated, annoyed, inspired, thrilled, exhilarated, overwhelmed, delighted, disillusioned, astonished, appalled, mystified, relieved.

 

As well as that, many candidates fall short in describing qualities of individuals. To use an accurate adjective here will help the examiner understand a candidate's answer more concisely.

 

Therefore, candidates ought to use adjectives such as: talented, ambitious, co-operative, aggressive, warm-hearted, open-minded, even-tempered, easy-going, analytical, outgoing, creative, imaginative, philosophical, sophisticated, naïve, loyal, trustworthy, determined, motivated, persistent, and goal-oriented.

 

 

Fail to Answer the Question

"四宗罪"之三：答非所问

 

Many candidates come to the speaking test with prepared answers. Examiners are aware of this and will ask questions which are similar to frequently asked questions.

 

Therefore, the prepared answer a candidate has, does not match the question. This gives the examiner a reason to lower the candidates score because there is a phrase in the criteria which deals directly with ‘remembered speech'.

 

So, candidates should listen to the question carefully, rather than relying on prepared answers. Remember, there is a tape recorder that records everything in the room. This can be used as evidence against a candidate.

 

If an examiner feels that a candidate may have accidently misinterpreted a question, they will either, repeat the question or advise the candidate that they have not answered the asked question.

 

If a candidate continues to answer questions with prepared answers, the examiner will deem that the candidate is using prepared answers. As an experienced examiner, it is quite easy to differentiate between a remembered answer and an answer which has been devised in a matter of seconds.

 

 

Not enough use of the voice

"四宗罪"之四：低声下气

 

In spoken English, the voice is just as powerful as any word. A common error with candidates is that they fail to use their voice when talking about something exciting, interesting or even sad.

 

If the topic is something interesting, such as a favourite past-time, then candidates should use their voice in a manner that expresses interest and excitement.

 

If a candidate sits there and mumbles how exciting it is to be with their grandparents at Spring Festival, then the examiner will mark the pronunciation criteria down since there is no effective use of stress or intonation.

 

In addition, candidates do not shift the tone of their voice enough. That is, if a candidate is talking about something they feel strongly about, then the tone of the voice should be slightly angry or agitated. In this way, the examiner is more likely to want to believe the candidate because the words are assisted by the tone of the voice.

 

HOMETOWN

 

Nouns: winding street There's a very long, winding street leading up to the house.

 

suburb

Box Hill is a suburb of Melbourne.

 

architecture

There’s some nice, German-style architecture in my hometown.

 

back alley

There are several special shops in the back alleys near where I live.

 

the locals(=people)

They say few of the locals in Shanghai are hospitable.

 

local cuisine

My mouth is always watering, speaking of local cuisine of my hometown.

 

shopping

Shopping has been made easier as there is a new hypermarket near my place.

 

district

There are some fashion districts in the city where I usually do window-shopping.

 

residential area

 The surroundings of our residential area are quite drab/bleak/ pleasant.

 

estate

It's a typical country estate with a large house for the owner, farm buildings and estate workers' houses.

 

neighbourhood

There were lots of kids in my neighbourhood when I was growing up.They live in a wealthy/poor/friendly neighbourhood.

 

municipality  n. 自治区,市当局

The municipality provides services such as electricity, water and rubbish collection.

 

apartment complex

(a large building with various connected rooms or a related group of buildings)They live in a large apartment complex.

 

city center

 It's impossible to park in the city centre.

 

coast/coastal city

My hometown is a coastal city, and I hang out with my friends on the beach from time to time.

 

countryside

The views of surrounding countryside are very stunning.

 

fresh air

 I really miss the fresh air there.

 

grassland

Nearby my hometown you can visit many grasslands.

 

high-rise building

A lot of high-rise buildings in Shanghai are rather spectacular.

 

historical site

Historical sites in the city always attract hundreds of thousands of tourists each year.

 

main industry

Main industries here are steel and manufacturing.

 

market  The markets are extremely colourful.

 

opportunity

The city is full of challenges and opportunities, and tough competition for sure.

 

pace of life

The hectic pace of city life is slowly driving me mad.

 

population

The population of my hometown is rather small.

 

shore

We do have a very nice shore with many coconut trees.

 

valley

My hometown is situated in a big valley.   Adjectives:sprawling(especially of a city) to cover a large area of land with buildings which have been added at different times so that it looks untidy:The refugee camps sprawl across the landscape.DISAPPROVING

 

sprawling suburbs

 

regionally important

 

commercial

 

The commercial future of the company looks very promising.

 

powerful

She's the most powerful person in the organization.

 

uniqueunique lifestyle/building/customEach person's genetic code is unique except in the case of identical twins.

 

distinctive

a distinctive smell/taste/buildingShe's got a very distinctive voice.

 

built-up

A place that is built-up is one where there are a lot of buildings:a built-up area

 

affluent

 having a lot of money or owning a lot of things; rich:affluent nations/neighborhoods

 

provincial

1．in or from the parts of the country that are not the capital city:The majority of young professionals in the capital have moved there from provincial towns.A lot of people working in Shanghai are from remote provincial towns. 2     DISAPPROVING having attitudes and ideas which are old fashioned and simple:（有贬义）provincial attitudes hospitable The villagers were very hospitable to/towards anyone who passed through.

 

industrial

industrial expansion/an industrial city/country/landscape/nationHe has an industrial background (= He has worked in industry).

 

lively

 In the evening, the street of mine becomes lively.

 

medium-sized

I prefer to live in medium-sized cities. I always got lost when I am big ones.

 

crowded

One biggest drawback of Shanghai is that it is quite crowed. You’ve got to wait when you do almost everything.

 

modern

Shanghai is known as a modern international metropolis.

 

open-minded

People there are not so open-minded, some of them are even short-sighted.

 

prosperous

The city has been getting more and more prosperous recently.

 

traditional The people are still very traditional compared with city people. Idiomsrun down= in bad condition  Some areas are run-down.up-market/chic=fashionableSome neighbourhood are becoming very up-market/chic.make a living be located

 

以前介绍过不少国外的教育资源，但还是发现有很多人对这些资料不太了解，今天花些时间介绍几个平时能用得到的资源。

国外的各种学习教育资源无穷无尽，刚开始接触这些资源的人会有无从下手的感觉，这时你的应该了解一些基础常识。

首先你的英文水平需要达到一定程度，这是保证高质量网络学习的基本要求。要在听力和阅读方面达到可以接收所需要的资讯。当你还没有达到这个要求的时候，你唯一能做的事就是尽一切努力提高你的英语水平，这会改变你的命运。

其次要需要学会利用ＧＯＯＧＬＥ和维基百科来查询所要了解的内容。

最重要的是你必需要有一个自己的目标，你所做一切都是向达成这个目标来前进。为了达到这个目标，你的必须建立一套自己的学习框架，然后不断的向这个框架内增加你所学到的知识，在这个过程中你的需要不断的记录自己进度、心得，然后去应用所学到的内容，把它变成自己知识体系的一部分。

下面开始介绍一些我认为非常不错的教育资源：

１、TTC course

TTC公司的主页(http://www.teach12.com/)：



如果你对国外大学教育市场有些了解的话，应该能听过这家公司。就是没听过，也应该能在网上看到有人提到过。

The Teaching Company 是一家制造全美国顶级教授演讲录音及录影的公司。这些教授在华盛顿特区外的一家特别的工作室录制这些课程，然后课程被转制成磁带、CD、DVD、MPEG-4、MP3等格式出售。

The Teaching Company公司由Thomas M. Rollins先生创建于1990年，Thomas M. Rollins先生是美国前参议院委员会劳工及人力资源首席顾问，毕业于哈佛大学法学院。他在学习过程中注意到，使用录像带学习很有效率。於是他开始尝试发起一个政府项目，为公众制作磁带，但是由於法律的限制而无法实践。当他离任时，他抱着这个想法而开始搜寻顶级教授来制作课程，并且销售给公众。

截至2007年，这家公司共提供了超过260门课程，内容总时长达3000小时，跨越9门不同学科，分别是：商业学和经济学、艺术和音乐、古代史和中世纪史、近代史、文学和英语、哲学和思想史、宗教、科学和数学以及社会科学。因注重学术性，教育性和娱乐性，符合终身学习的时代观念，在业界享有盛誉。由它推出的课程简称为TTC course。

这家教育公司应该是美国生产教育类产品的公司中最为厉害的一家了，从它所聘请到的授课教师背景就能看出这一点来，美国高校有50万教授，为它所挑中的人选有5000人，可谓百里挑一，可以说是美国高校中的精英力量，许多教授在各自校园中都获得过“教师奖”，这种头衔对于一个教授的授课能力来讲是很大的一种肯定。主页的左侧全是关于所授课程的介绍，人文、艺术、宗教学科及社会科学的课程占了比较大的比例。

提供课程的目标是提供成人教育和终身教育，大学本科非专业的典型知识的教育；不仅如此，他还有一系列为高中生提供的课程。每一门课程都包括一些印有大纲、推荐书目、教授简介以及思考问题的补充小册子。此外，课程还提供全文的文本。同时提供MP3下载，学习起来非常方便。

2. TMC course
 

Home hometown Sounds

Part 1 Topic Your Hometown

1.     Where is your hometown? (Or, what part of China do you come from?)

 

 I was born and brought up in this metropolis. I am a native of Shanghai. I have lived here all my life.(for …years)I am a local here. People always say Shanghai is a beautiful(an attractive) city, I ‘d rather say it’s absolutely enormous . As a local , I still have problems finding my way around.

 

 

2. Do you think you'll always live there?

 

 

Undoubtedly.  You know. All my family members , buddies and relations are here(there). There is no way I’m going to live without them.

I suppose not. I am the kind of person who always wants to experience something different. I wish I could live in a different city each year.

 

 

3.       Where do you live at the moment?

 

 

City center/urban area-prosperous chic

Suburban area/outskirts of the city run-down /sprawling

 

4.Do you like your hometown? (Why?/Why not?)

 

For:  1. cityscape is gorgeous/magnificent/spectacular/stunningTowering skyscrapers  耸立的 high-rise building are sprouting all over the city. 2. A variety of leisure of facilities (amusement parks, art galleries, concert halls, cafes ,stadiums ,movie theatres ,pubs and clubs, you name it ) life is dynamic and vibrant. Against: The pace of life/stressful fierce competition /can’t stand the hustle and bustle/densely-populated  have to wait in a dragon-like queue all the time /cost of living is sky-high

 

1.                 What sorts of buildings are there in your hometown? (得分点)

Architecture /International building complex外国建筑?Various /diverse Skyscrapers /high-rise buildings 20 30-storey /villas /detached houses terraced house /cottages /ancient western-style

 

2.                What would you say is the best part of your hometown?

 

the downtown area, the city center, the outskirts of the city, the area around my university, the northern part, etc. You need to express your personal reasons why you like that part of your hometown best.

1.                   shopping is made easy /boutiques /transportation /chic restaurants can be found easily 2.                  outskirts—tranquil/peaceful serene [siˈri:n]

 

3.                What's the most famous thing about your hometown?

 

Snack/refreshment/specialty 美味的 must for tourists

Oriental Pearl TV tower landmark tourist takes photos with the background of it

 

4.                Is there anything worth visiting in your hometown?

Numerous tourist attractions –world financial center-contemporary architecture/the bund night view/Yu Garden is steeped in time-honored traditions…

 

 

5.                 Has your hometown changed much in the past few years? (e.g. 20 years)

 

Great changes have taken place

People from both home and abroad flooded into the city.The traffic is always bumper to bumper.Air quality is poorer.

 

 

6.                Would you say your hometown is suitable for children to grow up in? 

 

 

Many  well-known/ prestigious institutions  in Shanghai

kids get well educated. Teaching quality /standard is higher. No .distractions temptations materialistic Survival the fittest . It’s like a jungle.

 

7.                 What parts of your hometown are most suitable for families and children?

 

 

doesn’t make much difference /transportation system is highly developed.

Outskirts 安静 空气质量好 干扰分心的东西少 房价稍微便宜点

 

Your Home (Your Accommodation)

 

1.                 Do you live in a house or a flat?

 

Duplex apartment flat/3 storey house/ spacious /crampedTerraced house /detached house/semi-detached house

 

2.                Please describe the place where you live.  

 

Neighborhood /a real sense of community/shabby run-down 

 

3.                How have you decorated your home (or, your room)?

 

Nicely furnished in a western/traditional style /oil paintings are on the wall/can’t list all the ornaments /posters/furniture

 

4.                Do you have anything (hanging) on the wall of your home (or your room)? (e.g., decorations)

 

Calligraphy  不可名词motivational words family photos during your trips /ink painting水墨画

 

5.                 What can you see when you look out the window of your room?

 

A busy street lively /chic restaurants/boutiques/cars passing by/spectacular view of the city6.                What is the environment like in your neighbourhood?  

 

 

Noise (new topic)

1.         Do you mind noises? (Do any noises bother you?) 

 

 

Absolutely.  Noises always drive me up the wall. Drive me mad. I always feel irritated when there is a loud noise.

 

 

2.        What type of noise do you come across in your daily life? 

 

 The worst one is from Construction sites, those drills give off high-pitched noise, it gives me headaches Neighbours’ houses are under renovation. The loud noise wakes me up early in the morning .Traffic noise, esp. large trunk thunders through the road Planes overheadLoud conversations on mobile phones Cell phone go off in classrooms or some people play corny songs on the bogus cell phones at maximum volume.Lawn mowers whine  Barking dogs, noisy neighbors throw parties, loud enough to wake the deadSnore. 更多的新概念三lesson 47

Read English aloud on the subway train

 

 3.        Are there any sounds that you like?   Birds chirping / chirp /tʃɜːp/ /in the morning.  a bird twitteringthe sound of sea/breaking glasseswaves lapping on a beach, against the side of a boat, etcthe sound of  wind chimes  

4.        Are cities becoming noisier? 

 The number of cars is increasing on a daily basis. The city is always under construction. Say: Old part of the city is being Tearing down and rebuilt. Whatever the source of noise.

Silence ,it seems, has become a golden memory .

 

 5.        What are some of the advantages of quiet places? 1.       Live longer, increase people’s life span 2.      Concentrate better, work or study better, improve work efficiency   3.      Put people in a mood.

4.      Enjoy life better, less likely to suffer  from diseases like trouble-sleeping/insomnia (不可数) caused by noise

 

6.        Would you like to work in a noisy place? (Why?/Why not?)

Over my dead body would I feel like working in a noisy place. Or If I were deaf , noise could no longer do me more harm

Common sense tells me noise is never in our favour.

 

7.        What sounds do you like (the most)? (Why?)

 

The sound of 乐器， soothing/excites me

 

 8.       What sounds do you dislike? (Why?) Can’t stand people snoring .

 

Part1——Work/Studies   Your Work

 

1.                 What job (or, what work) do you do?

 

 Job-line of work, occupation, profession Currently/presently, I am a freelance designer. One year ago I was a photographer. 不要说My job is doctor/teacher . I work for a foreign-funded/state-owned company as an accountant. I have done this job for…..Self-employed, I make a living by…

 

2.                What does your company do?

 

We are making.. We are selling …. Our company is leading one in this field. /Our company has a big name in china. (is quite well-known)/ Our company has a great reputation.

 

 

3.                What do you do in a typical day at work?

 

 Daily routine Clock in and clock out /deal with some paperwork/talk to your clients/develop new customers/

 

4.                Do you need to work with (= co-operate with) other people at work? (teamwork question)

 

Not all the time, we have to work within a team occasionally. The ability of being good on a team is a must if one wants to achieve something big. Team work spirit

 

5.                 Do you like working with them? Yes-absolutely definitely certainly. They are great guys. Working with them gives me a sense of belonging. Besides, some of them always have brilliant ideas. It ‘s a cool thing for us to exchange our views about projects we are working on. Improve communication skills Learn about myself and others

 

6.                Do you like your job (or, your work)? For: well-paid, make a decent living on itBoss treats everyone equallyWorking environment is friendly and superb. It offers state-of –art facilities.It also offers me a whole lot of benefits, like paid vacation, a pension plan and , on top of that, a company car.Against: working for peanuts（under-paid）work overtime without payment practically every day.Doesn’t offer the opportunity for quick promotion/dead-end job没有前途的工作Boss slave driver /constantly on the go/back-breaking job=work the flat out

 

7.                 What's the most difficult part of your job? Deal with angry customers , they are not reasonable get frustrated Meet tight deadlines, if I fail to do so, I will have to take/suffer serious consequences/ meet high sale achievement figures

 

8.                Would you recommend this job to other people?

 

It depends on whom. close friends, .No. 把工作上的缺点说一说。

 

9.                Do you think your (school or) university education prepared you well for the work you are doing now?

 

Luckily, my profession/line of work has everything to do with what I have learned in my university. I got the education I wanted, and now I am putting the theory into practice.Unfortunately, the job I’m doing now has little to do with the education I received in my university. The sad truth is I have wasted four years of my precious time learning something really useless. But looking on the bright side, I had made some really good friends. Too theoretic/not practical/ two different worlds ivory tower/real life   

 

10.            Do you prefer your life now, as a working person, to the life you had as a student?

 

Now, live independently, not longer have to rely on your parents any more, enjoy a high level of freedomStudent, practically no pressure/lead a carefree life/were surrounded by like-minded friends/now too much stress /should too much responsibility

 

11.              Why are you taking the IELTS test?

 

 Several reasons, though taking the test, I will know where my English is .(English level) It ‘s known as one of the most scientific test to check my LSRW abilities.Further my study overseas, the university requires me to get a high score. Though preparing the test, I could improve my English.常见错误：I want to pass the IELTS test. I hope to get a good score in the IELTS test

 

.Your Studies

 

1.                 What subject are you studying?  

 

I’m doing Accounting. It involves the activity of keeping records of the money a person or organization earns and spends. At first I couldn’t decide between and

 

 2.                Why did you choose to study that? Internal cause Interest /EC parents

 

 

1.       My father has a business. I want to take over company finances…2.      SA: I went for it because my parents and relatives thought it would be easier for me to find a well-paid job after graduation.Went with flow, it’s a promising field, stand out among my peers (in the crowd )

 

3.      Do you like your subject? (= your major = your subjects if a high school student)

 

It is my cup of tea. It’s the last thing I’ll like. 替换yes like. I suppose so. It enables me to fulfill my potential. I feel like a  duck in waterSome courses are way tedious. And sometimes what professors teach in class is over my head. And I feel like a fish out of water.Well, to tell you the truth, I really loathe some subjects such as, physics, chemistry. But I do find history and biology fascinating.

 

4.      Where do you study (= what school/university do you attend)? 

 

 Name Key school /has a great reputation/it’s really top-notch.

 

5.      Why did you choose that (particular) school/university?

 

 My father went to this university and he recommended it to me.And it ‘s a well-known university. And I stand a better chance to get employed after graduation. Employers tend to go for those who graduated from famous universities.

 

6.      When did you start this course and when will you finish it? Do you like university life?

 

考查过去式：I was enrolled 3years ago and my life in University will come to an end …later.

I believe I am going to miss it.

A variety of Extracurricular activities or social life  debate club, chess club , school newspaper, basketball team, the choir, volunteerMake a lot of friends. University life is awesome.

I have never had so much fun or learned so much about a topic, or most importantly, learned so much about myself.

Met great and diverse people, in situations that I’ve never thought I’d ever be in. I wouldn’t trade my years at university in for anything.

 

 

7.      What do you think of your school/university?

 

 Huge/small/enormous/tinyUp to date Facilities  /latest technology/ computer overhead projectorsTeaching quality   highly qualified Academic standards are highStudent support is excellent.Against:Teacher-oriented force-feeding approach to teaching /we have heavy class loads. The canteen/cafeteria food is lousy/awful/tasteless

 

8.     What is the best thing about your university/school?

 

We are encouraged to Exchange ideas with my classmates Gym/library/English corner/canteen food/learning atmosphere

 

9.      Why are you taking the IELTS test? 

 

 10.  What are your future study plans?  

 

Get a bachelor’s degree in UK and a master’s degree in Canada

 

11.   What are your future work plans? (after you graduate)

 

可以应用高分词汇：freelancer , freelance writer, a freelance photographerSelf-employed, biologist, geologist, surgeon, entrepreneur  Start my own business给出理由：well-paid, enjoy a high level of freedom, respectable

 

13.    When you start working, do you think you will prefer that to being a student?  

 

Now, live independently, not longer have to rely on your parents any more, enjoy a high level of freedomStudent, practically no pressure/lead a carefree life/were surrounded by like-minded friends/now too much stress /should too much responsibility

1
考查的单词 正确的选项 词性中文含义
abundant plentiful a. 大量的
accelerate increase v. 加速；加大
accessible available a. 可用的
according to depending on 依据；按照；；取决于
accordingly for that reason ad. 因此
accordingly consequently ad. 因此
account explain v. 解释；说明
account for explain v. 解释，说明
account for explain v. 解释，说明
accumulate collect v. 积累；积聚
accumulate collect v. 聚集
adequate sufficient a. 充分的；足够的
adhere stick v. 黏附；胶着
adjunct addition n. 附加物
administered managed v. 管理
adorn decorate v. 装饰
advent arrival n. 出现；到来
adversely negatively ad. 不利地；有害地
advocate proponent n. 倡导者；辩护者
aesthetically artistically ad. 审美地；美学地
affront insult v. 公开侮辱；轻蔑
aided helped v. 帮助
alert wary a. 机敏的
allay reduce v. 减轻；减少
alter change v. 改变；调整
alternative option n. 替代；替代物
altogether completely ad. 完全地
ancillary secondary a. 附属的；辅助的
annihilate conquer v. 消灭；征服
antagonist enemy n. 对手；敌人
antecedent predecessor n. 先辈
anticipate look forward to v. 期待；盼望
apace with as fast as 快速的
appealing attractive a. 吸引人的
apply used for v. 应用；适用
appreciated recognized v. 赏识
appreciation recognition n. 鉴赏；鉴别
aptly appropriately ad. 适当地
arduous difficult a. 艰巨的；艰苦的
2
article object n. 物品，物体
ascend climb v. 攀升；升高
assemble gather v. 装配；组合
assemble bring together v. 装配；组合
assortment variety n. 形形色色；各式各样
assumption belief n. 确信的想法
at any rate regardless 无论如何；至少
attachment preference for n. 依恋；偏好
attained achieved v. 达到
attained reached v. 达到
attendant accompanying n. 服务员
attire clothing n. 衣着；盛装
attribute credit v. 被认为；被鉴定
attribute characteristics n. 特征
avail make use v. 有用
avid eager a. 渴望的；热心的
barren infertile a. 贫瘠的；不毛的
barter exchange v. 易货贸易；物物交换
besides in addition to prep. 除此之外
bias prejudice n. 偏见；嗜好
bias prejudice n. 偏见；嗜好
bind tie v. 捆；绑；使结合
boast take pride in
having n./v. 夸口；自恃
boosted raised v. 提高，推进
bound limit n. 范围；界限
bound held v. 限制
break departure from n. 决裂；破裂
brief look glance n. 瞥视；浏览
bring about cause v. 导致；引起
brittle easily broken a. 易碎的
by virtue of because of 依靠；由于
calculate determine v. 计算；确定
came to the forefront became important
carry support v. 支撑；支持
carry on conduct v. 开展；维持；继续
carry on continue v.
cease stop v. 停止；结束
celebratory full of praise n. 颂扬
celestial astronomical a. 天空的；天上的
3
chance unplanned a. 偶然的；碰巧的
characteristics qualities n. 性质，特性
charged with assigned to 主管, 掌管
chronicle describe v. 记述
circumscribe restrict v. 在……周围画线；限制
classify categorize v. 分类
clear unobstructed a. 畅通的；无阻的
clue information n. 线索；信息
clue information n.
clue proof n.
cluster group v. 成群
coarse rough a. 粗糙的
coarse crude a.
coin create v. 创造；杜撰
coincide with happen at the same time ad. 同时
collective group n. 集体
collectively together ad. 共同地
come of age establish itself v. 达到法定年龄；确立自身地位
comparably similarly ad. 可比地；相当地
compelling forceful a. 强制的；强迫的
component parts n. 部分
compose focus on v. 创作；创造
comprise consist of v. 包含；包括
concealed covered a. 隐藏着的
concentrate cluster v. 集中；积聚
conclusive definitive a. 最后的
concomitant with in conjunction with ad. 协同
concrete specific a. 具体的；特定的
configuration arrangement n. 结构；形状
confine limit v. 限制；局限
confine restrict v.
confirm uphold v. 证实；确认
conflicting opposing a. 冲突的；抵触的
conjectural based on
guessing a. 猜测的；推测的
consequence result n. 结果
conserve store v. 保存；保护
conserve retain v.
considerable large a. 很重要的；很大的
considerable substantial a.
4
considerable much a.
considerable great a.
consistent constant a. 持续的
consort associate v. 结交
conspicuous noticeable a. 显著的
constituent component n. 成分；要素
constitute make up v. 构成；组成
consume eat v. 吃掉
consumption eat n. 消费；消耗
contemporary existing a. 当代的；现有的
contemporary current a.
contemporary written at that time a.
convergence gathering n. 聚集
convert change v. 转换；转变
convert chang v.
correspondingly similarly ad. 相应地；对应地
count weigh v. 有价值；有分量
counter overcome v. 反对；驳回
counteract negate v. 抵消；反作用
counterpart version n. 复本；对应物
crisscross move back and
forth v. 穿梭；交错往来
critical judge of fine arts connoisseur n. 鉴赏家；评论家
crucial important a. 重要的
cumbersome burdensome a. 麻烦的；笨重的
customary usual a. 习惯的；惯例的
dampen moisten v. 使潮湿
daring bold a. 勇敢的；大胆的
deft skilled a. 熟练的；灵巧的
deliberate careful a. 审慎的；仔细的
deliver present v. 递送；呈递
demand require v. 要求；需求
demise death n. 死亡
demonstrate show v. 表明；证实
dense thick a. 稠密的；浓厚的
depend rely v. 依靠；依赖
depict represent v. 描绘；描述
depress lower v. 压低；使沮丧
derive obtain v. 得到
derive from base on v. 基于
5
detect find v. 探测
detectable measurable a. 可察觉的；易发现的
detectable apparent a.
devastated ruined a. 毁坏的；被破坏的
developing evolving a. 发展的；演化的
devote to dedicate v. 致力于；献身于
devote to specializing in v.
dictate determine v. 指示；决定；确定
dictate determine v.
diffuse travel v. 扩散；传播
disaster catastrophe n. 灾难
discard get rid of v. 丢弃；抛弃
dispute argument n. 争论；争执
disseminate spread/impart v. 散布；传播
disseminate spread v.
distinct separate a. 清晰的；不同的；独特的
distinct separate a.
distinct different a.
distinct separate a.
distnctive unique a. 特殊的；独特的
distinguish differentiate v. 区分；辨别
divergence difference n. 差异；变化
diverse dissimilar a. 多种多样的；不一样的；不同的
diverse varied a.
diverse different a.
dividing line boundary n. 边界；分界线
do sth. repeatedly iterate v. 重复；反复
domain field n. 领域；范围
domain region n.
dominant most common a. 主要的；占优势的
dominate be prevalent in v. 支配；控制
dramatic striking a. 戏剧性的；显著的
drastic radical a. 激烈的；猛烈的
drastically severely ad. 激烈地
draw attract v. 吸引；引导
draw attract v.
draw instruct v.
durability endurance n. 经久，耐久
durable long-lasting a. 持久的；耐用的
durable strong a.
6
dwelling house n. 住处；寓所
eager enthusiastic a. 热心的
easily moved portable a. 轻便的；可携带的
easily moved portable a.
edge advantage n. 优势
effect influence v. 影响；效果
efficiency effectiveness n. 效力
elaborately done in great
detail ad. 详尽地；精心地
elevate promote v. 提高；提升
elicit bring out v. 引出
embraced welcomed v. 欢迎
emerge appear v. 浮现；出现
emit give off v. 发出；生产，发行
emit produce v.
emphasize stress v. 强调
employ use v. 雇佣；应用
enable allow v. 使能够；使可能
enable help v.
enactment performance n. 演出；表演
encompass include v. 包含
encounter meet v. 遇到；相遇
end goal n. 末端；目的
endless continuous a. 无止境的；无穷的
engage hire v. 雇佣
enhance increase v. 提高；增进
enhancement improvement n. 提高；增进
ensure guarantee v. 保证
entire whole a. 全部的
entity object n. 实体；存在
entomb trap v. 埋葬；设陷阱
envelop surround v. 遮盖；包围
era period of time n. 时期
eradicate eliminate v. 除去；消除
erroneous ideas misconception n. 误解；错误观念
erroneously identified as mistake v. 误以为；误认为
essence basic nature n. 基本
essential fundamental a. 基本的
establish create v. 设立；创作
estimate judge v. 鉴定
7
evidence indicate n. 迹象；预示
evolution development n. 发展；演化
exalted superior a. 高贵的；崇高的
excavate dig v. 挖掘；开凿
excavate dig v.
exceptional remarkable a. 非凡的；例外的
execute create v. 造成；制成；履行；执行
execute produce v.
exercise utilize v. 行使，利用
exert cause v. 引起；产生
exert put v. 施加(压力等)
exorbitant expensive a. 昂贵的
expendable unprofitable a. 没有用的
expose subject to v. 使暴露；暴露于
expose uncover v.
extend stretch v. 延长；扩展
extend increase v.
extol praise v. 赞美
extol praise v.
extract remove v. 提取；取得；根除，移除
extract remove v.
extract remove v.
extraordinary supreme a. 非凡的；极度的
fabricate make v. 制作；装配；构建
fabricate construct v.
facilitate enable v. 使容易；使便利；帮助
faction side n. 小派系
fashion create v. 造成，引起
fatal deadly a. 致命的
favor prefer v. 喜爱
favored perferred a. 喜爱的
feed put v. 供给；供应
feel detect v. 察觉；感觉
finding scientific
discovery
fine tiny a. 细小的
finely minutely ad. 精细的
fixture commonplace
object n. 固定设备；附属装置
flamed burned a. 燃烧的
8
flattering complimentary a. 称赞的；奉承的
flourished thrived n. 茂盛
forage feed v. 搜索；寻找食物
forage search for food v.
formidable difficult a. 艰难的
fortuitous sudden a. 偶然的；幸运的
forward-looking progressive a. 向前看的；有远见的
frame pose v. 构造；提出
framework structure n. 结构；框架
freeing releasing n. 解除，释放
frown on disapprove of v. 露出不悦之色；表示不赞成
functional usable a. 合用的
fundamental basic a. 基础的；基本的
furnish provide v. 提供；供应
gambit calculated risk n. 策略；谋略
gap open n. 缺口；缝隙
give rise to bring about v. 引起；带来；导致
give way to turn into v. 让位；变成
glowing shining a. 光亮的
good name reputation n. 名声；名誉
gradually by degrees ad. 逐渐地；逐步地
graphic vivid a. 生动的
grumble complain v. 抱怨
hard firm a. 坚硬的；牢固的
hardiest most vigorous a. 最强健的；最有力的
hard to deal with stubborn a. 执拗的；固执的
haul load n. 搬运物；载货
heart center n. 中心
hemisphere side n. 半球；半边
hence for these reasons ad. 因此；所以
henceforth from that time on ad. 自此以后
herald announce v. 预示；预报
hing on depend on v. 依靠
hinterland region n. 地方；区域
ideal perfect a. 完美的
identical exactly alike a. 同样的
ignite set on fire v. 着火；燃烧
imitate copy v. 模仿；伪造
immunity protection n. 保护
immutable unchangeable a. 不变的
9
impediment obstacle n. 妨碍；阻碍
imperceptibly subtly ad. 不可觉察地；极缓慢地
implement tool n. 工具；器械
implication significance n. 含义；意义
imposing demanding a. 紧迫的；紧急的
inaccessible enreachable a. 难接近的；难达到的
in place of instead of ad. 代替
in reality actually n. 实际上；事实上
inaccessible unreachable a. 难接近的；难达到的
inception beginning n. 起初
incinerate burn up v. 烧毁
incised carved a. 雕刻的
incise cut v. 切割；雕刻
inclination preference n. 倾向；偏好
incorporate combine v. 结合；合并
indeterminate uncertain a. 模糊的；不确定的
influx arrival n. 流入；到达
ingenuity resourcefulness n. 机灵
inhibit hinder v. 阻止；阻碍
initiate start v. 开始；引发
initiate cause v.
innovation new idea n. 创新；革新
innovative new a. 创新的
insignificant unimportant a. 不重要的
instance case n. 实例；例证
integral essential a. 整体的；不可缺少的；基本的
integral fundamental a.
intense extreme a. 强烈的；剧烈的
intensive concentrated a. 加强的，集中的
intent goal n. 目的
intent purpose n.
interchangeable equivalent a. 相等的；可互换的
intermittently periodically ad. 间歇地；断断续续地
intervals periods n. 周期
intervention influence n. 干涉；影响
intricate complex a. 复杂的
intriguing attractive a. 迷人的
intriguing fascinationg a.
intriguing fascinationg a.
invade move into v. 侵入
10
inviting attractive a. 吸引人的；诱人的
justify prove v. 辩护；证实
key important
laborious difficult a. 费力的
lie be located v. 位于
load weight n. 重担
locale place n. 场所
lured attracted v. 吸引，引诱
magnify intensify v. 放大；强化
maintain preserve v. 维持；坚持
maintain preserve v.
maintain keep v.
major principal a. 主要的；大型的
make possible allow v. 允许；使可能
mandate require v. 要求
margin edge n. 边；边缘
marked pronounce a. 明显的；显著的
marked noticeable a.
means method n. 方法
merely only ad. 仅仅地，只不过
meteoric rapid a. 迅速的
meticulously carefully ad. 小心地
minuscule tiny a. 很小的；微小的
minute tiny a. 微小的；细微的
modifying changing v. 修改；变化
momentarily effortlessly ad. 即刻
monopolize dominate v. 独占；占优势
moreover furthermore ad. 此外；另外
moreover in addition ad.
motif design n. 图案；花纹
mundane ordinary a. 世俗的；普通的
myriad many a. 许多的；无数的
nascent immature a. 新生的；初生的
necissitate require v. 使需要；使成为必需
nevertheless however ad. 然而；仍然
norm standard n. 标准
note observe v. 注意到
notice announce v. 宣告，通告
notwithstanding despite prep. 尽管
notwithstanding in spite of prep.
11
noxious harmful a. 有害的；有毒的
obtain get v. 获得；取得
obtain acquire v.
obtain acquire v.
obvious apparent a. 明显的；显而易见的
on the threshold of at the start of 在……的起点；开端
optimal best a. 最佳的
ornate elaborate a. 华丽的
oscillate swing v. 来回摇摆；犹豫不决
outbreak beginning n. 爆发；开始
outline summarizing v. 总结；概括
outstanding excellent a. 杰出的；显著的
over great distances faraway a. 遥远之处
oversee supervise v. 检查；监督
overtake surpass v. 赶上，超越
partitioning division n. 分割, 划分
peak maximum a. 最高的；高峰的
peculiar strange a. 奇特的
penetrate go through v. 穿透；透过
people in the play actor n. 演员；剧中人物
periphery outer edge n. 外围
permeate spread through v. 渗透；透过
persist continue v. 持续
personal magnetism charisma n. 个人魅力
pertinent relevant a. 有关的
phenomena event n. 现象；事件
pick up follow v. 寻找；寻路
picture imagine v. 想像
pit hole n. 坑；洼地
plunge drop n./v. 投入，陷入
ponderous heavy a. 笨重的
pore hole n. 毛孔；细孔
position job n. 职位；职务
postulate suggest v. 假定；要求
potential possible a. 潜在的；可能的
precarious uncertain a. 不稳定的
precise accurate a. 精确的
prefer favor v. 偏好；喜欢
preside manage v. 负责；统辖
presumably probably ad. 大概
12
prevailed dominated v. 成功，统治
prevailing most frequent a. 盛行的；流行的；占优势的
prevailing dominant a.
prevent avoid v. 制止；阻止
primarily chiefly ad. 主要地
primary fundamental a. 基本的；初步的
prime principal a. 主要的；首要的
primitive undeveloped a. 原始的, 远古的
prior to preceding a. 在先；居前
prized valued a. 贵重的
probe explore v. 探察
probe explore v.
produce butter n. 产物；产品
prolific productive a. 多产的
prolific fruitful a.
prolonged extended a. 持续久的；长时期的
prominent distinguished a. 显著的；卓越的；著名的
prominent famous a.
proponent supporter n. 支持者
prototype model n. 原型；范例
protrude project v. 突出；伸出
provision supply v. 提供……以必需品
pry off locate v. 查找
puncture pierce v. 刺穿；刺破
pursue chase v. 追赶
raise rear v. 饲养；养育
random unpredictable a. 不可知的
rapidity swiftness n. 迅速
rare infrequent a. 稀有的；罕见的
rather instead ad. 相反；相反地
rather than instead of 而不是
readily easily ad. 容易地
realization awareness n. 认识；意识
realization recognition n.
reap accept v. 收获；接受
rear raise v. 培养；饲养
reckless irresponsible a. 不负责任的
recorded documented a. 已纪录的
recruit enlist v. 征募；补充
refreshing unusual a. 清新的；清爽的
13
regardless of no matter what a. 不管
relate connect v. 相关；关联
reliance dependence n. 依靠
remarkable significant a. 异常的；非凡的
representative typical a. 典型的
resemble be similar to v. 相似；类似
resemble appear similar to v.
resolve find a solution for v. 解决
resort to using v. 采用
revered respected v. 尊敬
revise change v. 修正；改造
revitalize bring new life to v. 新生
robust strong a. 强健的；坚强的
roll back reduce v. 压低；减少
rotate alternate v. 轮流；更迭
rotate turn v.
rotting decaying v. 腐烂
roughly approximately ad. 概略地；大约
rudimentary undeveloped a. 原始的；简单的
rupture burst v. 破裂；裂开
rushing rapid a. 急流的
sanitation health n. 卫生；健康状态
saturate soak v. 浸透；饱和
saying two opposite
things paradox n. 悖论；隽语
scale measure n./v. 刻度/测量
scattered irrgularly
distributed a. 离散的；分散的
scarce rare a. 稀有的
scarcely barely ad. 稀缺；珍贵
scope extent n. 范围
scorched burned v. 烧焦
score musical
compositions n. 乐谱
scurrying rushing v. 急赶
secure acquire v. 获得；取得
secure safe ad. 安全的
sedentary inactive a. 不移栖的
sentiment opinion n. 意见；观点
serve as function as v. 充当；担任
14
set establish v. 确定；安置
settle decide v. 决定；解决
settled stabled a. 固定的
severe poverty indigence n. 贫困；赤贫
shield protect v. 保护；避开
significance importance n. 意义；重要性
significant meaningful a. 有重要意义的
site location n. 地点；场所
skepticism doubt n. 怀疑主义；怀疑态度
sketch draw v. 速写；素描
skilled expert a. 熟练的；擅长的
skyrocket increase rapidly v. 猛涨，突增
sleep briefly nap n. 小睡；打盹
smooth operation effective
functioning
snap break v. 折断；拉断
sole only a. 唯一的；独一的
sole only a.
solemn serious a. 严肃的；庄重的
sort out separate v. 挑选出
source basis n. 根源；水源；根本
source of energy fuel n. 能源；燃料
spanning covering v. 包含
spark bring about v. 激发；发动
spawn create v. 酝酿；引起
speculate hypothesize v. 推测；假设
staggering overwhelming a. 压倒的；压倒之势的
standard customary a. 标准的
standing not flowing a. 停滞的；不流动的
staple popular edition n. 主要成分；流行的东西
staple basic element n.
stimulate encourage v. 激发；促进
storey level n. 楼层；层
strain stress v. 拉紧，重压
strength basis n. 实力；基础
stress emphasize v. 强调
striking noticeable a. 显著的；惊人的
strikingly noticeablely ad. 显著地；惊人地
stringent strict a. 严格的；严厉的
strip remove v. 除去：剥去
15
struggle competition n. 竞争
stunning impressive a. 令人印象深刻的
subject susceptible a. 易受影响的；遭受影响的
subjugated conquered v. 征服
subscribe to agree with v. 同意
subsequent later a. 后来的
subsidize finance v. 资助；赞助
subsidy finance n. 补助金；补贴
succinct concise a. 简洁的；简练的
sufficient adequate a. 足够的；充足的
suitably appropriately ad. 适宜地
sumptuous luxurious a. 豪华的；奢侈的
sums amounts n. 和
supplant replace v. 取代；替代
supplement extension n. 补充；补遗
supplement add to v. 补充，增加
support hold v. 支持；支撑
supposedly seemingly ad. 想象地；表面上
supremacy dominance n. 至高无上；支配地位
supreme most outstanding a. 最大的；极度的
surge increase sharply v. 急剧增加
surging accelerating a. 高涨的；跃进的
suspend hang v. 挂；悬挂
sustain support v. 支撑
sweep extend v. 扫过：伸展；逶迤
symmetrical proportionally
balanced a. 对称的；匀称的
tangled twisted together a. 混乱的
technically officially ad. 学术上；正式地
telling challenging a. 有效的；有力的
teeming with full of a. 充满；富于
tempting attractive a. 诱人的
tend care for v. 照顾，照料
testimony to evidence of n. 证据；证明
thanks to because of n. 由于；多亏
thereby by that means
think highly admire v. 钦佩；羡慕
thrive grow well v. 繁荣；兴旺
thrive flourish v.
thwart frustrate v. 妨碍；使挫折
16
tolerate endure v. 忍受；忍耐
trace imprint n. 痕迹；遗迹
transform change v. 转换；改变
transition change v. 转变；过渡
trend tendency n. 趋势；趋向
typify characterize v. 代表，表现
ultimately eventually ad. 最后
ultimately in the end ad.
unchronicled unrecorded a. 未记录的
undergo experience v. 经历
undergo experienced v.
undergo experienced v.
underscore emphasize v. 强调
underwater craft submarine n. 潜水艇
undoubtedly certainly ad. 的确地
unique particular a. 独特的；非凡的
unique singular a.
unprecedented never seen before a. 空前的
unprecedented not existing before a.
unravel discover v. 解开；阐明
unrestricted unlimited a. 无限制的；自由的
unsubstantiated unverified a. 未证实的；未核实的
urged encouraged v. 催促，鼓励
usher begin v. 引导；开始
various different a. 不同的
vary differ v. 变化；改变
vast large a. 巨大的；大量的；广阔的
vast great a.
venture endeavor n. 冒险；冒险行动
version form n. 版本；形式
very closely intimately ad. 亲密；密切
vestige evidence n. 遗迹；残余
virtually completely n. 实质地
want to much greedy a. 贪婪的；贪心的
whether if conj. 是否
wider more extensive a. 宽广的
witness observe v. 目睹；目击
yield provide v. 产生；出产；生长；产生效果
yield produce v.

虽然鸟类都会唱歌，但它们唱歌的旋律、调调是各有差异的。为了研究它们唱歌的技能

是先天遗传（基因）的还是后天习得（外界因素）的，researchers 做了很多实验。Chaffinch 和北美的X crow （X可能=necked， winged，billed 等）的幼鸟是如何学会唱歌的。

试验一、Researchers 首先把刚出生的一只小chaffinch 带离鸟巢，放在另外一个地方

单独养，与其他大5 Z- |3 b; F; M/ ?2 E9chaffinch 隔离isolate，不让它听到大鸟唱歌song。在三个月以后，到雄性该求爱时放回自然，听它的song 1 c3 T6 {& d/ X( d是怎样的。结果显示该chaffinch 还是会唱这种歌，只是调子有方言variation、很简单、不连续disconnected。( L: M7 v. t) l$ {

这就证明了chaffinch 先天就有唱歌的本领的。/ u% c/ ?5 P9 o1 [4 J5 Z

试验二、Researchers 首先把刚出生的一只小white X crow/sparrow 带离鸟巢，放在另外一个地方单独养，与其它大white X crow 隔离，不让它听到大鸟的歌。在刚开始的3 个月，还没有形成自己;的歌声前，给小鸟$ s0 C* ]+ h$ m$听其它鸟唱歌的磁带recording。它很快就学会了recording 里的鸟的叫声& Y  Y1 `. d/ g2 s#（dialect），它的调子很快就和那些鸟的调子一样了。此研究显示：它的dialect 不是由基因决定，而是与环境有很大关9 b* P; m2系。研究还发现4 个月6 T! ^; R# [5 A, c

以后，它都只会唱自己的调调，再给它听别的recording，它也学不会了unreceptive(考4 [5 e  `/ W  z% e4 N  S

了这个词的意思)。: D, u" _5 g'说明后天学习也有时间限制。: q$ a6 i2 G7 @7 D2 x* F- z

试验三、另一种鸟，F 开头的。说这种鸟如果不让它们听到自己的声音，它们就只能形

成破碎的音节而已连不成歌。一定要让它们听见自己在发什么音，才能让它们唱好。: z. {) W. x" D( A% e

单词题：ultimately, reinforce, proliferate/proliferation, superb, optimal, blur

电报在美国和欧洲的发展史：  Q& ^ 9 G% j' z1 z! y5 }( Q

科技进步，1840S 的电报已经有了长足进步云云，Telegraph 有很重大的意义：拉进了long distance communication。但是遇到了一些obstacle: fund 不够; 也缺少management；好像还有一个缺陷。（然后提出了两个问题：到底是由谁来负责，投资？）2 x) S' j  f+ \

电报在美国的发展史：当时Telegraph 在美国发展得不如在欧洲发展得好，因为美国人还把精力放在电话telephone 的研究上。& d6 _: x! U# h

在美国，telegraph system 掌控在私人企业手里（私有化的private），很多私人商务行为都用电报来联系。- O! d8 T" q5 v$ ]

这些私企有些很垄断monopoly。在19 世纪，电报被纳入政府监管under8 y- r) x: S7 g' e7 N! Ogovernment regulation。之后， although美国那时有科技的限制，但电报在美国发展得最好的，得到了普及。2 N! _: b# Y0 z* I- B: v8 F. Y

电报在欧洲的发展史：当时很多欧洲国家担心电报会使情报外流，就在犹豫要不要立法来规范电报行为。

随着发展，欧洲国家把telegraph 纳入governmental control（国家政府管理）, 主要" j5 A; `)N4 l. 应用在邮政系统postal& L7 J4 ~7 ^: I; X; system 方面，因此欧洲国家的传统邮政postal 业又恢复生机。

电报需要建立 net，这为后来的网络的建立提供了很多思路，所以说telegraph 是非常

revolutionary invention。% x0 J* j* U& g7 d& w: @. q! R

虽然telegraph 重要，但其不像人们猜测的那么重要，因为在当时，transportation 已

经发展了，人们之间的4  V0距离被缩短了（物流发达），因此，不应过分夸大电报发明的意义。电报只产生了9 V- }! little change 。（这点在后面也有考到）。